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Steve Buttry developed this handout for a workshop for
the South Asian Journalists Association, New York, July 13,
2006. Buttry is API's Director of Tailored Programs, and
can be contacted at: sbuttry@americanpressinstitute.org.
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The Elements and Structure of Narrative
Narrative
writing is not just a writing style. As much as narrative demands creativity,
it also demands discipline. Much of that discipline falls into the
three categories examined here:
- Development of the elements or ingredients of a story.
- Development of the narrative structure.
- Knowing what not to
use in the story itself and how to use supplementary “layers” to
enhance the story presentation and to tell the story using multi-media.
The elements of narrative
Journalists tend to think in terms of the basics of journalism: Who,
what, when, where, why, how. Narrative journalists must think in terms
of story elements: setting, character, plot, conflict, climax, resolution,
dialogue, theme, action, scenes.
Elements shape reporting.
The
story elements shape not only your writing but your reporting. For
instance, you can answer “who” with
a name and some basic details, perhaps age, hometown, occupation: Steve
Buttry, 51, a writing coach. However, if you’re developing a character,
you seek and find considerably more: Air Force brat, preacher’s
kid, Yankee fan, cancer survivor, novelist wannabe, father, husband,
former editor, lousy athlete, Eagle Scout, writing coach, itinerant journalist,
game creator, wise guy. “When” may be a place on the map, “where” a
point on the calendar or clock. Setting demands description. It demands
relationship in time and place to other events and places. Setting is
a time and place where you transport the reader to watch the action unfold.
Plot is not a set of events, but a series of events, each flowing from
the one before and leading to the next. Conflict demands resolution,
or explanation of the inability to resolve. Think of these elements as
you report, so you have the material you need when you write.
Elements shape lead.
Story
elements may help you write your lead. Which is the most important
element for this story? Perhaps that should be the focus of your lead.
What is the climax? Perhaps that’s
where you should open the story. Does the intersection of two elements
(a character in a setting, the setting of a climax) bring the reader
immediately to the point of a story? Then establish both immediately,
link them clearly and develop them simultaneously. Is one element secondary
to another but still essential? Then introduce the secondary element
but keep its development clearly secondary, so you don’t shift
or confuse the focus.
Treat quotes as dialogue.
If a quote just gives the reader
information, perhaps you should do that in your own words. In a narrative,
you use quotes primarily for characters speaking in scenes.
Use sensory detail.
Help the reader picture the characters,
setting and action of your story, even if photos or online videos will
accompany your story. You want your words to complement the visual elements,
enhancing the picture without describing what the reader can see for
herself. Use your other senses to complete the experience for the reader.
Help her hear and feel, perhaps even smell and taste. Senses are an important
tool in transporting the reader to the time and place of the story.
Identify critical elements.
In
shorter narratives, you won’t
have much space for character development or setting description. You
may not have space to develop all the elements. Identify the most important
elements, the most compelling characters, the key moments, the most telling
details. You may develop one character fully but have only a few words
to establish minor characters.
Planning your structure
Think about structure
early and often as you work on a story. As soon as you get the idea
or assignment, start considering the best way to tell the story. You
have lots of choices and no structure is right or wrong for every situation.
The right structure depends on you and the story. As you report and
discover the story, seek the best way to tell it. Consider alternatives.
Try a couple approaches if you’re not
sure.
Consult with your editor.
Don’t hold your cards too close
to your vest. Your editor can provide valuable direction on story structure.
Even if you aren’t on the same wave length as your editor, consultations
help prepare the editor for something different. Or the consultation
may identify standards that you have to meet when trying something different.
If your editor likes the approach you’re planning, you get an ally
in winning over other editors who might be skeptical. If you’re
trying a structure you haven’t tried before, the editor might have
experience with that structure. If you’re lacking confidence in
your new structure, the editor can provide advice and encouragement.
Plan your structure.
Especially
if you’re considering
a structure you haven’t used before, write a plan or outline of
your story. What will be the central conflict? How will you resolve it?
Who are the characters? What is the plot? What is the setting? Where
will you start? Where will you end? Will you write a single story or
a series? Or a package with a main story and sidebars? Discuss the plan
with your editors. Take inventory as you’re writing the plan. What
do you already have that this plan requires? What do you need to learn
to carry out this plan? Where can you learn that information?
Avoid formulaic writing.
None
of these structures is inherently good or bad. Each of them has strengths
and can be effective. Any of them can become a cliché if overused or used ineffectively. The
structure doesn’t ensure a good story. Your creativity and high
standards make the structure work for your story.
Find the right structure.
The structures presented below are
only some examples of ways you can structure a narrative. Some of them
overlap, so your story probably will fall in more than one of the categories
below. Or you might be creative enough to craft a perfect structure for
your story that defies any of these labels.
Types of narrative structure
Basic structure.
Writing coach Dick Weiss summarizes the essential
structure of narrative: a story with a beginning, a middle and an end,
where action moves through time. Each of these descriptions that follows
is a variation of this basic structure.
Martini glass.
This
story form, named by writing coach Don Fry, starts out as a traditional
inverted pyramid, giving the reader the most important news first in
a straight lead, following with other news in decreasing importance,
just like the inverted pyramid, which becomes the top of the glass.
At the bottom of this triangle is an olive, the nut graf or set-up
for a narrative. The narrative follows in a straight path, the stem
of the martini glass. The story ends with a conclusion that wraps up
the story, perhaps fulfilling a promise you made up in the “olive” paragraph or resolving the conflict laid out
there. While an inverted-pyramid story can cut from the end, the martini-glass
story needs this ending, the base of the glass. If you must cut, you
probably will need to shorten the stem. This is a different description
of what Roy Peter Clark of Poynter calls the “hourglass,” structure,
which turns from inverted pyramid to narrative with some sort of transition
like “It started with …” This approach can be effective
in using a narrative approach for a daily news story. You need to cover
the news up high and give a few important facts, then you launch into
the narrative of what happened. Another variation on this is called the
champagne glass – the top before the narrative begins is a summary,
but not necessarily in inverted-pyramid structure.
Conflict/resolution.
Ken Fuson of the Des Moines Register says
every story at its heart is a story of conflict and resolution. Establish
your conflict early and clearly. Unfold the plot as your characters pursue
the resolution. Ideally the resolution will provide a powerful and fitting
end. Because we write many news stories before the conflict is resolved,
you sometimes need to alter this approach. Instead of resolving the conflict,
your story becomes about the quest for resolution or the frustration
of waiting for resolution.
Story arc.
Jack
Hart of The Oregonian coaches writers to plan their narrative stories
along the story arc – exposition, rising
action, climax, denouement. The exposition sets the scene and introduces
the characters, or at least the protagonist. The plot begins to unfold
with the rising action, when the protagonist engages the complication
of the story. (This is the conflict Fuson says is essential to a story).
The rising action will be the body of the story, the unfolding plot.
It must build tension, or at least pique curiosity. The rising action
leads to a climax, the resolution of the conflict. The writer ties up
the story and any loose ends in the denouement.
Brief narrative.
The
brief narrative is effective for simple stories about a single incident.
A routine police story or light feature may be a brief narrative. A
government meeting might provide a brief narrative. You can unfold
the brief narrative in a variety of ways. If you’re writing a
news story, you may need to give the reader the news first before you
begin the narrative. Start with a summary lead, telling the basic news.
You might follow with a paragraph or two of context and/or explaining
why the story is important. Then you start at the beginning and tell
what happened. You might open with the who, what, when and where, then
use the narrative to tell how and why. With a feature story, the brief
narrative can start at a key moment, then jump back in time and unfold
chronologically. Or you can start at the beginning and let the story
flow chronologically. In a feature, you might want to use suspense
and tension to keep the reader moving, rather than giving away the
end at the top, as you may have to do with a news story. A brief narrative
may develop just a few story elements.
Long narrative.
A
long narrative is an especially effective approach for a weekend story
or for second or third-day coverage of a big news story. It also works
in feature stories. In the long narrative, you don’t want to give away the whole conclusion, or perhaps any
of it, at the top of the story. If you’re writing a narrative about
a major news story, the reader will already know the what of the
ending, but may not know the why or how or the background
or all the details. A long narrative needs to hook the reader quickly
and give the reader a reason to stick with you. Tension and suspense,
even mystery, are important elements of the long narrative, but confusion
is not. Give the reader an early hint, or promise, of what’s to
come early in the story. Fuson (who credits editor Jan Winburn of the
Baltimor Sun with teaching him this) says the promise sometimes plays
the role of nut graph in the long narrative. The promise may raise a
question that the reader can expect you to answer by the end of the story.
It may lay out the mystery that you will solve or establish the conflict
you will resolve. Story elements are crucial to the long narrative. Develop
the characters carefully so the reader cares about them and wants to
know what happens to them. Place the characters in a setting and use
sensory detail to transport the reader there. Use dialogue to help the
reader hear the characters. Capture the key moments in memorable scenes
where your narrative slows (or accelerates) to highlight the drama. Use
what Clark calls “internal cliffhangers” to build suspense,
move the reader along and give a promise of an ending worth the journey.
Use what Fry calls “gold coins” to keep the reader following
your path. These are the compelling, intriguing, amusing or enchanting
details or anecdotes that you would shove to the top of an inverted-pyramid
story. You need to string them throughout the long narrative to reward
the reader for continuing the journey.
Serial narrative.
A
serial narrative follows many of the same techniques as a long narrative.
Each piece needs to stand on its own as well as link to the others.
You need an overriding theme and/or conflict holding the serial together.
Each installment needs a sub-theme or conflict. While the ending must
wrap up that day’s story, it also should
have some element of promise or mystery, maybe even a cliffhanger, to
invite the reader back for the next installment. Be especially demanding
of the serial narrative and each of its parts. You’re better off
cutting the story short by a day or two than risking a story or two that
drag or wander from the central conflict. If you lose readers during
a narrative with a weak link, they won’t come back. Most newspaper
narratives start on Sunday, when many readers have extra time to spend
with the newspaper. Your reader’s patience threshold might be lower
on weekdays, because she’s reading your paper quickly before she
goes to work, or on a coffee break at work. Installments that day must
be shorter and/or more compelling to continue holding reader interest.
Partial narrative.
Narrative
is not an all-or-nothing proposition. Some stories about issues or
news events will use narrative techniques, even though they aren’t
pure narrative stories. An anecdotal lead may be the best way to open
a story that shifts to an examination of the issue that the lead illustrates
or introduces. A story that requires mostly straight-news techniques
with officials talking to the reporter might need a narrative passage
to highlight a key moment.
Structural Issues
Avoid confusion.
In
a long or serial narrative, multiple characters can confuse the reader.
Consider the importance of each character and decide whether you can
omit some. If your story still has a large cast, consider a “cast of characters” box with mug shots and thumbnail
identification. This will help the reader keep characters straight, particularly
when a minor character resurfaces quite a while after you first introduced
him. Where possible, avoid reusing minor characters. Geography and chronology
also can be confusing, especially if the story doesn’t flow in
chronological order or doesn’t occur all in one place. Consider
a map or timeline, or a map with numbers and text blocks that show how
the action flowed through time and space.
Process bogs down narrative.
Reporters
need to know much more about process than readers want to know. Consider
one of these approaches to explaining legal, bureaucratic or technical
processes that aren’t
essential to the narrative:
- Omit process
explanation. It’s not important to some stories.
- Minimize process explanation. Process detail is not important to
some stories.
- Handle the process in a sidebar, providing explanation to readers
who want it but not burdening your main story.
- Handle the process in a graphic that will explain it better.
Nut graphs.
Journalists
disagree about the necessity (and sometimes the definition) of nut
graphs. But this much is difficult to dispute: High in every story,
even a narrative, you need to tell the reader why she should read this
story today. A good nut graph often is the best way to achieve that.
But a clumsy nut graph can disrupt the flow of a narrative. For an
issue story, the nut graph sometimes is a simplification of the issue.
That doesn’t work for most narratives, but an artful
promise of what’s to come can help orient the reader effectively.
Layering your story
Your narrative is more than the prose that you write. Your story is
the full package of information and images that your newspaper presents
to the reader. As the journalist whose name will appear most prominently
and as the journalist usually with the largest investment of time and
pride in the story, the reporter has to assume responsibility for the
full package and take an active role in its planning and production.
Telling a narrative
story in “layers” allows a writer to
use other forms to present supporting information that would slow down
the story. It also gives you multiple chances to lure the scanning reader
into your story. Maybe the headline alone won’t draw the reader
into the story. But a pull-quote or graphic makes the reader stop and
read. If a reporter’s interest in the tasks of presentation won’t
motivate involvement, perhaps vanity will: More people will read and
remember your story if your newspaper presents it in an eye-catching
package.
Consider all the ways you can present information, in addition to your
story. Your newspaper might have different terminology for some of the
elements described here. Your newspaper might use some layers not explained
here. Make sure you learn the terminology used in your newsroom and learn
which elements your design favors most. These are not all the layers
that you might use with any kind of story, just the ones most likely
to complement a narrative story:
Staff photographs.
Work
closely with the photojournalist who is helping you tell this story.
Photos are an important storytelling tool. Make sure the photographer
knows how you are planning to tell the story, who the main characters
are and how important the setting is. Photos will be the reader’s introduction to the story in most cases.
The best narrative packages are a result of close collaboration between
writer and photographer. Don’t be bashful about making suggestions,
but respect the professional skill of the photographer to come up with
better ideas than you might suggest.
Archival photographs.
Check your files, paper and electronic,
for historical photographs that may tell part of the story.
Donated photographs.
Ask
the characters you interview for photographs they have taken that might
show events or places where you were not present. Seek candid photographs
and mug shots of dead or missing people you write about. Seek youthful
photographs of people you write about, if your story will deal with
that period in their lives. Some photos that you don’t
use may help you describe people, places or events in the story.
Illustrations.
A staff photographer or artist might be able
to create an effective illustration to help tell the story and attract
the reader's eye. Or a character might be able to provide illustrations
done by others.
Maps.
A simple locator map might help the reader understand
where an event took place. Or a complex map might show how and where
events unfolded.
Diagrams.
If
the reader might wonder “how did that happen?” or “how
does that work?” consider a diagram to provide a clearer answer
than you can in prose. Again, you can produce a staff-generated diagram
or you might come across a diagram in your reporting that you can use
with permission and credit.
Timelines.
A timeline places a specific event or series of
events in context with other events. This can be simple text or you can
turn it into a graphic or perhaps illustrate with photos of some of the
events. You can combine a timeline with a map, showing how an event unfolded
through space and time.
Chronologies.
A
chronology details how an event unfolded. A chronology can be all text
or can tie into a map or diagram that explains key steps. If you don’t
have a map or diagram, photos of key people or events might enhance
the chronology.
Glossaries.
A
glossary explains terminology relating to a particular issue. This
doesn’t
absolve the writer from explaining some terms in context in the story,
but gives an opportunity for more detailed definitions.
Use-It Boxes.
Pull
out useful information for the reader into a box that attracts the
eye quickly. This may be something the reader will be looking for later
when she returns to the story. Use-it’s,
also called go-and-do boxes, might have date and time of an event, ticket
price, location, a phone number for more information, how to make donations,
how to volunteer, who can participate, web sites, etc. Use-its run more
often with non-narrative stories, but be sure you consider the possibility.
A narrative about someone with a disease or about a victim of abuse might
provide information about organizations that provide assistance for people
in those circumstances. A narrative in relation to an anniversary might
include a use-it with information about activities to observe the anniversary.
Consider how the reader might act in response to your story. If you write
a story that moves the reader to act, put the information that tells
the reader how to act in one place that’s easy to find.
What’s-next
box.
A serial narrative needs a box telling
readers where this installment fits and what to expect next.
Tables, charts and graphs.
Numbers can bog down any story, but
especially a narrative. If you have more than two related numbers, consider
presenting them in a table, chart or graph. Numbers almost always work
better in one of these formats than in prose. The more numbers you use,
the more important that you simplify them for the reader in one of these
forms.
Statistics.
Does your story include statistical information
that can be presented in an understandable typographical table as a separate
element, such as a box score?
Cast of characters.
If
the story involves several people, consider a separate element with
mug shots of the characters and thumbnail sketches. This can be simple
biographical information or it can include fun facts that don’t
really fit into the narrative but add to the character development
of the total package.
Bio box.
If
your story focuses on a particular character, especially a newsmaker,
consider a box with some basic information – age,
education, occupation, family and perhaps a fun fact or two. With both
the bio box and the cast of characters, some overlap with the story is
inevitable and desirable. But exact duplication is a waste of your space
and the reader’s time. Make the bio box or cast of characters mostly
new information. Mug shots or even a wide candid shot add to a cast of
characters or a bio box. (A note about the “boxes” referred
to here: Whether you actually box them with a border is a matter of design
style for your paper. If the borders of your box are white space, call
them windows or breakouts if you prefer. Or make up your own terminology
that works for your staff.)
Fact boxes.
Sometimes,
especially with a complicated story, a fact box summarizing key points
is helpful to the reader. This is especially important if you are using
the narrative approach to tell a story related to an important public
issue. Fact boxes and some of these other layering devices help you
address points that don’t fit in the narrative.
By the numbers.
You
can bring several disparate facts about a story together in an easy
and eye-catching way in a “by the numbers” box
that features the numbers in large type and explains them in smaller
type.
Lists.
Lists
almost always work better as a separate element, even if it’s
just text, than in the prose of a narrative story.
Pull quotes.
Does a particular quote seem to sum up the story
or a point? Consider highlighting it in a box, perhaps with a photo of
the speaker.
Rails and strips.
You can pull a mix of these different elements
together in a vertical rail or a horizontal strip that will help frame
your package and give the browsing reader several layers to draw him
into the story.
Sidebars.
Remember the old standby of sidebars. You can use
a sidebar for any of a variety of reasons. Perhaps your narrative addresses
a public issue and you need a sidebar to cover some important information
or debate that would disrupt the narrative flow. Maybe you come up with
an interesting related narrative that would become a detour in the main
story but stands well on its own. Maybe the information in the sidebar
would get lost in the main story and really deserves its own headline.
Main headlines.
The
main headline will be one of the first layers to catch the reader’s attention, many times the very first.
It needs to convey the essence of the story in tone and information.
If you have a good idea for the headline, be sure you share it with your
editors. At least make a point of seeing the main headline before publication.
If it misses the point, gives away the ending unnecessarily or doesn’t
reflect the story’s tone, you want to make that complaint in time
to help change it.
Deck headlines.
Secondary headlines known as decks help give
the reader more information, another chance to draw the reader into the
story. While the main headline is written in clipped style or perhaps
even a one- or two-word label, decks are increasingly written in full,
conversational sentences. The deck should provide additional information.
If the main head raised a question or omitted an important point, the
deck should address it. Again, you should not be bashful about suggesting
secondary heads or about reading the headlines written by copy editors
before the story is published.
Captions and cutlines.
Writing the captions and cutlines that
go with photographs may not be your job, but you should read them and
consider how they will complement your story and watch for conflicts
with the story or for giving away information that destroys the tension
or mystery of the story.
Online layers.
Your web site gives more opportunities for storytelling
layers, such as slide shows, audio, video, interactive elements, links
to related sites, database searches that allow the reader to find his
own personal information. Learn how to use the tools of interactive storytelling
so you can give your story appeal on multiple platforms. When you have
extra layers online, be sure to plug them in the print version.
Logos.
If
you are writing a serial narrative, it will become known by the title
and logo that you and your colleagues develop. Give this plenty of
thought and work with the editors and artists who carry out the idea.
You don’t want a lame or misleading title for the
series, just because you left the “packaging” of the story
to someone else.
Plan the layers
Plan layers early.
As
you discuss a story with your editor at the planning stage, discuss
possible layers you might use in the package. On major stories, consider
a “maestro” meeting, where you
meet with the editor(s), visual journalists and online editor who will
work on the package gather to brainstorm ways to present the package
and coordinate their efforts. This makes the presentation integral to
the story, rather than an afterthought. In the maestro meeting, everyone
can talk about any aspect of the package, regardless of specialty. The
maestro meeting replaces the traditional handoff from reporter to editor
with a teamwork approach from the beginning.
Plan layers as you go.
However
well you plan early, stories will change as you learn more about them.
You will come across information you didn’t anticipate in your
maestro session. For a major change, you may need to reconvene a maestro
session. More often, you can change plans with an individual conversation
or two.
Plan layers as you write.
As you write the story, you may realize
that some information will work better in a sidebar or graphic. Discuss
these possibilities right away with your editor. Ideally your early planning
will avoid last-minute changes in plans. But you should still try last-minute
changes if they improve the package for your readers.
Put the plan in writing.
For
a routine story, a simple budget line that details elements of the
package may suffice. For bigger stories, you should follow the maestro
meeting up with a written plan that details the elements of the package,
the roles of the journalists in producing and coordinating the elements
and deadlines for providing information and finished elements. Writing
this plan may actually help you focus the writing of the main story.
It will help you see where the story fits in the package and what points
you don’t have to cover in the narrative.
Advice for reporters from Earl Swift of the Virginian-Pilot:
Once you have the
story finished, you’ll want to again redefine
your job to include editing and design. Volunteer to write the captions.
Offer headline suggestions. Proofread all the pages. Sit in on photo-editing
sessions, so that you have a voice in what images are chosen to accompany
your work. Collaborate with the designer assigned your story to ensure
that the overall “feel” of the presentation matches the mood
you’ve established; no matter how carefully you craft a story,
your readers will be left emotionally befuddled if the packaging strikes
a disharmonious chord.
I call this “Following the Story,” and,
on a big series or feature, I will even drive to the plant at midnight
to watch the paper come off the press, and hang with the pressmen to
ensure the register is perfect on the photos.
Take similar pains,
and perhaps you’ll avoid the kind of unpleasant
surprise visited on my colleague Fred Kirsch when his very first story
was published by a paper in New Jersey. It was about a high school baseball
team’s deep pitching rotation. Unfortunately, some editor mistyped
the headline, and the mistake got by the proofers; the story thus appeared
under the announcement “Bull penis strong.” You can imagine
how Fred felt showing that off to his mom.
Helpful storytelling resources
http://www.newsthinking.com/story.cfm?SID=120
http://www.newsthinking.com/story.cfm?SID=81
http://www.newsthinking.com/story.cfm?SID=68
http://www.newsthinking.com/story.cfm?SID=16
http://www.newsthinking.com/story.cfm?SID=114
http://www.newsthinking.com/story.cfm?SID=172
http://www.projo.com/words/past.htm#endings
http://www.projo.com/words/past.htm#humor
http://www.projo.com/words/past.htm#longer
http://www.projo.com/words/tp20020926.htm
http://www.projo.com/words/tp062702.htm
http://www.projo.com/words/tp032702.htm
Resources to help with layering:
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